When learning the target concept, the learner is presented a set of training examples, each consisting of an instance x from X, along with its target concept value c(x) (e.g., the training examples in Table 2.1).Instances for which = 1 are called positive examples, or members of the target concept.Instances for which C(X) = 0 are called negative examples, or nonmembers of the target concept. One of the first theories on learning to gain widespread currency in education was IQ (Intelligence Quotient) theory. IQ theory is mainly interested in the concept of intelligence, which is seen as determining people's ability to learn, to achieve academically and therefore to take on leading roles in society. Introduction to Machine Learning Amo G. Tong 4 Concept Learning •Given some training examples < , ( )>and an unknown function . •Find a good approximation of . •Concept learning: learn a concept. •E.g. Is it a bird? Is it a laptop? •More generally, some questions can be answered by yes or no. People have been trying to understand learning for over 2000 years. Learning theorists have carried out a debate on how people learn that began at least as far back as the Greek philosophers, Socrates (469 -399 B.C.), Plato (427 - 347 B.C.), and Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C). The debates that have occurred through the ages reoccur today in a Concept learning Concept learning = inferring a boolean-valued function from training examples of its input and output Inductive learning for classification (Concept Learning) Classification, also called concept learning, consists of learning a description of a class of objects. This description is typically used to predict whether new objects fit the class. According to the point of view, the establishment of the stimulus-response relationship is known as leaning. (i) Learning is a process through which the behavior of the child changes or modifies. (ii) Learning is predicted on the basis of changes in behavior. (iii) These changes can be negative or positive. This chapter reinforces the following principles of Concept-Based Curriculum design: •• The traditional coverage-based curriculum model, which relies on students "doing" verbs with content, rarely produces deep or transferable learning. •• Concept-Based units focus on using content—topics, facts, and skills—to Chapter 2 Concept Learning 22 Inductive Bias Consider - concept learning algorithm L - instances X, target concept c - training examples Dc={} -let L(xi,Dc) denote the classification assigned to the instance xi by L after training on data Dc. Definition: The inductive bias of L is any minimal set of assertions B First, learning is not confined to schools and indeed starts long before a child enters a class-room. Some might argue that learning begins about seventeen days after conception and this will be discussed later. Second, learning is an integral component of being human. Human beings do two things very well: survive and learn. Concept learning describes the process by which experience allows us to partition objects in the world into classes for the purpose of generalization, discrimination, and inference. Models of concept learning have adopted one of three contrasting views concerning category representation. In prototype theories, the concept learning process is people (Monroe, 1925). Much learning was the rote memorization and recitation of scripture and the learning of trades by apprenticeship. The primary conception of the pur